Industrialization - contributed
to centralization: concentrating workers in factories
Industrialization became an instrument
of power ==> affected international relations
* second half of the 19 century:
the Second Industrial Revolution changed the world ==>>
a. technological advances
b. new forms of business and labor
organizations
c. the rise of the middle class
to the political and social power
d. the decline of traditional groups
or classes
e. dramatic changes in the
role of women and children in the family
* Economic development - uneven:
central, southern and eastern Europe - agricultural
** Urbanization - continued (at
a rapid pace)
The
social trends of the Second Industrial Rev.:
a. the rise of the middle class
to political, economic, and social prominence
b. the decline of the artisan working
class
c. the emergence of factory workers
as an important social group
d. the decline of the number of
farming people
e. the development of a white collar
group of clerks and managers
f. the breakdown of regional loyalties
and the integration of the citizen into national political and social activity
Technology and Science
1769: James Watt's steam
engine ===> applied to new transportation means
> 1803: steamship ( R.
Fulton)
> 1814: railroad steam engine (G.
Stephenson)
1800s: invention of
-------------)
- internal combustion engine
)
- electric engine
)>> new
- telegraph
) industries
- radio
-------------)
Transportation and communication:
1869: Suez Canal
1914: Panama Canal ===> naval transportation
Automobiles ( the Diesel
engine)
Zeppelin airships
telephone (G.
Bell)
Science and Scholarship
a. Mathematics - non-Euclidean geometry
(Lobachevski)
- invention of topology (Riemann)
b. Physics - electric battery (Volta)
- theory of electromagnetic induction (Faraday)
- laws of thermodynamics (Carnot)
c. Chemistry - periodic law and
table of elements
(Mendeleev)
- discovery of x-rays (Roentgen)
==>>
foundation for non-newtonian physics
(Planck, Einstein)
d. Biology - bacteriology (Pasteur,
Koch)
- evolutionism (Darwin)
e. Geology - the origins of the
Earth's physical features
(Lyell)
f. Sociology - "science about society"
(Comte)
- social facts and typology (Durkheim)
g. Archaeology - decipherment of
hieroglyphs
(Champollion)
- discovery of Troy (Schliemann)
- discovery of human fossils and stone tools
==> prehistory (Breuil, Mortillet)
- typological method (Montelius)
h. Historiography - "objective
science" (Ranke)
- national histories
i. Anthropology - physical and
cultural characteristics - of mankind
- physical anthropology -
interest in human races
- some were considered - favored (Darwian sense: superior in inheritance
and survival value)
- whites: the most competent
race => among withes: the Nordics, or Germans and Anglo-Saxons
- Anthropology, like Darwinian
evolution => undermined traditional religious beliefs.
j. Psychology - the science of human
behavior
1870s - Wilhelm
Wundt (1832-1920)
Ivan
Pavlov - experiments in which he "conditioned"
dogs
to salivate automatically
at a ring of a bell - associated the
sound with the serving
of their food (conditioned responses - humans make
automatically by virtue of their earlier environment and training not through
choice or reasoning)
Sigmund
Freud (1856-1939) - founded psychoanalysis
- hysteria - traceable
to earlier episodes
- hypnosis
- free association
> patients - should bring suppressed
experiences into conscious recall => the symptoms of illness would disappear
> explored the role that the unconscious
played in all human behavior => stressed the sexual drive
The Interpretation of the Dreams
(1900): the dreams, the key to understanding the unconscious
=> human beings were not essentially
rational creatures at all
Anti - Semitism:
19th century the Jews in Europe
- a small minority
- trend toward emancipation
and assimilation
- Reform Judaism - the Jewish counterpart
ot modernism in other faiths
- liberalism - Jews - citizens
=> enter business or the professions => freed from old legal discriminations
- tendencies counter to assimilation
(the end of 19th century)
- the rise of anti-Semitism
> racist theories, dislike for
Jewish competitors in business and the professions, socialist scorn for
Jewish capitalists (Rothschilds), upper-class fears of Jewish revolutionaries
and Marxists, and the growth of ethnic nationalism (France should be purely
French and Latin, Germany purely German, Russia purely Russian and Slav)
Episodes:
- Russia: pogroms, massacres of
Jews
- France: the Dreyfus case
Zionism - birth of the movement,
Jews nationalist movement (modern and political) =>
the first international Zionist
congress at Basel (1897)
- hoped to establish a Jewish state
in Palestine ( there had been no independent Jewish state since ancient
times)
Others => Judaism was a religious faith, not a nationality by itself => Jews and non Jews within the same country shared the same nationality, citizenship, and political and social outlook
Arts and Literature
Realism - reaction against
Romanticism
- coincides with the spread of the industrial revolution in Europe
- style in:
* novel: Balzac,
Stendhal, Galsworthy, Tolstoy
* painting: Courbet,
Millet, Repin
- argues that art should imitate
nature in all details
- attempts to study "scientifically"
both nature and society
- influence of sociology and historiography
=> reality should be described in causal and chronological succession
- attempts to classify social types
- prizes large - scale social portraits
(Comedie Humaine -
Balzac, War and Peace -
Tolstoy)
Symbolism - reaction against Realism (art as nature)
- Style in - poetry: Baudelaire,
Verlaine, Mallarme,
Rimbaud
- music: Debussy
- painting: Impressionists - Monet,
Renoir, Degas
- attempts to catch the deep feelings
and thoughts
- not the essence, but nuances
- assumes secret associations between
elements of universe (correspondences)
- celebrates music (esp. piano)
- symbol = concentration of meanings
in a single word or image
Art Nouveau - the revolution
in arts
(Gaudi, Galle, Tiffany, Gustav Klimt, Hoffmann)
W. Morris
- art for everybody , lets bring the art into the streets
- lets get back to tradition and craftsmanship
Fin de Siecle / La Belle Époque
Abstraction: Post - Impressionism
( Cubism, Pointillism etc.)
- the essence of the reality
- the influence of primitive
art and/or non-western art.