Constitutional Monarchy

After 1860: England lost supremacy in world manufacturing to US, Germany, France
- England remained the dominant financial power with the largest overseas investments

Queen Victoria (1837 - 1901): asserted considerable power as constitutional monarch
- formation of the political parties: Liberals and Tories

1866: William Evert Gladstone - attempted to enlarge the electorate (1)
1867: Benjamin Disraeli - Second Reform Bill (2)
1872: Gladstone: introduced the secret ballot (3)
1884: Gladstone: Third Reform Bill (suffrage for most adult males) (4)

(1) - (4) => creation of mass political parties
1874: use of grass-roots committees during elections
1880: first populist campaigns (Liberals)

- rise of Irish nationalism + universal male suffrage => Ireland  - major political problem

- 1858: the Fenian Brotherhood founded in New York => use of terrorism
- 1881: Land Act: attempt to give rights to Irish peasants
- 1886: Gladstone tried to implement home rule (self-government) in Ireland => reaction of the protestant landlords and Presbyterian  Scottish settlers of Ulster => political crisis of the Liberals => the wing led by Joe Chamberlain joined the Tories

- rise of the working - class movement, favored by the Liberal crisis
> 1893: foundation of the Independent Labor Party (ILP)
> 1900: ILP coalesced with other socialist groups to form the Labour Party
1906: Labourists won 29 seats in the Parliament => Liberals forced to introduce social reforms (Old age pensions, 1908;
unemployment & health insurance, 1911)
1911: Parliament Act: House of the Lords - no longer had the right to veto money bills

The British Empire

1820: Britain had secured access to all oceans, with a net of bases ( Gibraltar, Cape Town, Singapore, Australia)

Forces of expansion:

a) steam transportation ( iron - hulled steam vessels) => easy penetration into the interior along major rivers
b) tropical medicine (Quinine) => efficient ways to combat tropical diseases (Malaria)
c) new weaponry (mussle-loading rifles, breechloaders, Maxim gun) => military supremacy over large armies

The White Colonies

Canada:
- large numbers of American settlers after 1783 => conflicts with the catholic French of Canada
- after 1837: attempts to give Canada self-government as a unified province (with a French minority)
- 1867: BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT => Quebec has its own administration within the Dominion of Canada

Australia:
- former dumping ground for convicts
- 1855: self-government => 1901: Australia is granted the status of dominion

India

1833: East India Company lost its trading function in India => control by the crown => pressure on the native society
1830s: increasing political pressure in parliament and press to reform Indian society along British lines
- introduction of telegraph and railroads
- annexation of neighboring territories (the Sikhs of Punjab, lower Burma)
- increasing missionary activities
- equality before the law (disruption of the caste system)
- eradication of heathen customs (the Hindu ritual of sati)

1840 - 1850: peak of the reform efforts => considerable resistance
1857: introduction of rifles with paper cart-ridges waterproofed with tallow obtained from pig and cow fat =>
revolt of the company's native soldiers (sepoys)
1857-8: Great mutiny => London dissolved the Company => India became a possession of the Crown

British rule => native reaction => 1885: formation of the Indian Congress Party

Africa

1874: a British punitive expedition crushed the Ashanti kingdom of West Africa => annexation of the Gold Coast, Togo and Nigeria
1882: native, Islamic reaction in the Egyptian army against French and English rule => Britain annexed Egypt (1)
1883: Islamic revolt in Sudan (Mahdists) => Britain annexed Sudan and East Africa (2)

(1) - (2) British colonial interests clashed with those of France => 1898: the Fashoda crisis

1872: Cape of Good Hope receives self-government => Dutch (Boer) settlers occupy regions in the interior => 1838: crushed the zulu army => foundation of 2 independent republics (Orange and Transvaal) => British intervention crushed (1881)
1886: discovery of gold and diamond in Transvaal => British governor Cecil Rhodes attempts to destroy Boer independence => 1896: British army crushed by Boers with German assistance
1900: British armies conquer Pretoria => concentration camps for Boers and Africans
1910: Boer - dominated Union of South Africa is granted status of dominion