After the Congress of Vienna:
Bourbons returned to France, Spain, and Naples
Conservatism + revival of Inquisition ==>>rise of revolutionary
secret societies
Ex: Jacobin fraternities (Spain)
Free Masonry (France)
Carbonaria (Italy)
Repression could not contain the liberal and nationalist
ideals unleashed by the French Revolution.
> 1820-1829 - new revolutionary activities
Revolution in Europe:
Spain: 1812 - new, liberal constitution rejected by the
king
1820 - revolt of the officers ==>> the Concert of
Europe empowered France to crush the
revolution
Italy: March 1821: revolution in Piedmont ==>>crushed
by
the Austrians with the authorization of
the Concert of Europe, and by the rulers
of the Italian states.
Russia: December 1825: uprising of liberal officers
(exposed to French ideas) crushed
by Nicholas I.
- rigid censorship imposed+ secret police organized
Greece: 1814 - secret society Hetairia
1821 - revolt in Morea against Turkey ==>>
Ottoman armies massacred the Greek population on
the island of Chios
1822 - National Assembly at Epidauros proclaims
the independence of Greece
1825 - Turkish armies besiege Missolunghi ==>>
France and Britain intervene
1827 - Navarino - Ottoman fleet crushed by French
& English war ships
1829 - Turkish - Russian war ends ==>> Turkey
coerced to acknowledge the independence of
Greece
Many educated western Europeans, infused with the culture
of ancient Greece, were sympathetic to the Greek cause.
1829: Metternich system, directed against liberal and
nationalist rebellions, had been breached
France: the Bourbons, restored after the downfall of
Napoleon ruled until 1830
Louis XVIII - moderate course:
>> the constitution (Charter) - two house parliament
>> property requirements for voting
>> recognized that citizens possess certain fundamental
rights
1824: Comte d'Artois succeeded as Charles X - leader
of the ultras (aristocrats who sought to return to the old order)
>> hostility of the bourgeoisie
1830: liberals - victory in the elections
the king issued the July Ordinances: dissolved the elected
chamber, censored the press and limited the vote for the bourgeoisie
bourgeoisie, student, and workers in Paris rebelled - joined by army regiments
- July 1830 Revolution - ==>>
the king abdicates ==>> the July Monarchy of Louis Philippe
of Orleans
the Parisian workers felt betrayed (republic)
The Revolution of 1830 (France) inspired uprisings:
> Catholic Belgium revolted against Protestant Holland
>>
proclaimed its independence
> Poland - students, intellectuals, and army officers
- against
Russian rulers (1830-1831); 1831- Warsaw
fell to the
Russians.
> 1831-1832: Italy; Austria intervenes
Revolution in Latin America
Napoleon's occupation of Spain ==>>revolution in the colonies
1811: Venezuela -independent republic ==>>continental
armies under Simon Bolivar crush Spanish troops (1821 - independence)
1821: Mexico - independent kingdom (republic in 1824)
1822: Ecuador - independent
1824: Peru and Bolivia - independent
The 1848 Revolution:
1848 - the year of the revolution
Causes: - the economic crisis of the previous two years;
potato fungus ==>> agricultural catastrophe
(1845 - 1847)
- rise of nationalism
- the absence of liberty (Jacques Droz)
France:
> discontent against the monarchy of Louis Philippe:
- new electoral law (1846) - 3% of the adult males could
vote
- radical republicans or democrats - abolish the monarchy
+ grant all men the right to vote
>> February 1848: protest demonstration (bourgeoisie,
students, workers) turns into revolt ==>> end of the
July Monarchy ==>> proclamation of the second
republic
- government controlled by liberals (Lamartine, Louis
Blanc)
- measures taken: first free elections under male universal
suffrage
National workshops (work to the
unemployed at the government expense)
May 1848: new national assembly dismantles the National Workshops ==>> reaction of the unemployed and the artisans of Paris ==>> intervention of the army (E. Cavaignac) ==>>June Days (radical revolution) - deep division between the workers and the rest of France
December 1848: Louis Napoleon Bonaparte - elected president
==>> December 1852: coup d'etat ==>>
proclamation of the Second Empire (Napoleon III)
Germany:
**March 1848: street demonstrations against rulers in
the capital cities of German states
demanded liberal reforms, call to create an unified Germany with a parliament
and a constitutional monarch
1840s - great depression: peasants and workers
joined the struggle
**Berlin demonstrations ==>> intervention of the army
==>> the Prussian king (Frederick William IV) accepts the creation of a
parliament dominated by liberals
** May 1848: All German parliament at Frankfurt - to create a unified and liberal Germany; offered the crown of united Germany to the king of Prussia ==>> he refused ==>> Prussian troops pacified Germany
Austria:
- ethnic composition of the empire: Germans (25%), Magyars, Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Romanians, Ruthenians, and Italians
** March 1848: street demonstrations
in Vienna ( liberals pressed for a constitution) ==>>Metternich dismissed
and the Constitutional Assembly is summoned
==>> revolution at Prague, Milan, Cracow, Budapest, Italy
and Transylvania ==>> the emperor promises a liberal constitution
> in Bohemia, Czechs - constitution for Bohemia and equal
status with German for the Czech language; June 1848 - bombing of Prague
(by General Windischgratz)
> in Hungary - Magyars demanded local autonomy and liberal
reforms (Lajos Kossuth); Magyars - ignored the national aspirations of
other groups (Romanians)
April 1849 -revolution is crushed by Russian intervention
*** 1848 - new emperor : Franz Joseph ==>> revolution in Vienna ended
Consequences:
1. Shattering of the Old Regime ==>> governments co-opted
the lower social orders
2. Created nationalism based on "historic rights" ( Hungary
- Lajos Kossuth, Transylvania - Simion Barnutiu, Czech lands - Frantisek
Palacky, Italy - Giuseppe Mazzini) ==>> ethnic nationalism