Before 1860: only two nation states -
- Great Britain
- France
* Spain - united on the map/ internally divided; Portugal, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries - nation-states, but small and peripheral

A nation-state: one in which supreme political authority rests upon and represents the will and feeling of its inhabitants ( the people - "we the people")
people: must will and feel something in common; belong and are members of the same community; participate in a common life; sense that the government is their government; the outsiders are "foreign"

The consolidation of nation-states (two phases):
- territorially - the union of preexisting smaller states
- morally and psychologically- the creation of new ties between government and governed, the admission of new segments of population to political life through liberal and representative institutions
 
 

The Making of Italy

> Northwest: kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont) - the royal house of Savoy - the only native Italian dynasty in Italy
> East of Piedmont: Lombardy
> East of Lombardy: Venice
* since 1814: Lombardy and Venice - Austrian Empire
> South of Lombardy: duchy of Tuscany (Florence)
> smaller duchies of Modena, Parma, and Lucca
> across the middle of the peninsula: the papal states
> South: the kingdom of Naples, or the Two Sicilies (since 1735 ruled by a branch of the Bourbons)

==>> the governments of those states were content with their independence ( but were remote from their peoples)

1859-1871: making of Italy
---->>war with Austria (1858-1859)
---->>popular revolts (1860-1865)
---->>diplomatic arrangements (1866-71)

December 1847: first issue of the newspaper Il Risorgimento (The Resurgence), symbol of the making of Italy
  ** resurrect the Italian grandeur of ancient times and of the Renaissance

War and popular revolts:

Making of Italy - (1) papal hegemony (V. Gioberti); failed in 1848-9
                         - (2) expansion of Piedmont (C. Cavour)
                         - (3) republic (G. Mazzini, G. Garibaldi)

(2) Camillo di Cavour (1852): prime minister of Piedmont (1848 - ruled as a constitutional monarchy)
- unite Italy under king Victor Emmanuel
- Cavour - made Piedmont a model of progress, efficiency, and fair government
- Cavour - favored the building of railroads and docks, improvement of agriculture, and trade
- anticlerical policy: cut down the religious holidays, abolished the church courts - all without the approval of the Holy See

Cavour - liberal and constitutional monarchist ( no sympathy for revolutionary and republican nationalism - Mazzini -)
Cavour - embraced Realpolitik (politics of reality)

Cavour brings Piedmont on Turkey's side in the Crimean War (1856) ==> alliance with France against Austria (1859) - to win a place at the peace table - rise the Italian question at the Congress of Paris

Napoleon III: apostle of modernity, in favor of the "doctrine of nationalities" (consolidation of nations - forward step at the existing stage of history)
Napoleon III : fight reactionary Austria - would bring the liberals in France on his side
                    1858: Orsini (Italian republican) attempted to assassinate him with a bomb

==>> reached a secret agreement with Cavour

April 1859: Piedmont declared war to Austria; the French army poured over the Alps

1859:Magenta and Solferino - Piedmontese-French troops routed the Austrians

1859-1860: revolt in central Italy and Sicily (Garibaldi's "thousand") ==> Piedmontese army invaded the Papal states and Naples ==> Piedmontese king proclaimed king of Italy

Italy complete:

1865-1866: war between Austria and Prussia ==> Piedmont allied with Prussia ==> Italy incorporates Venice
1871: French troops withdrew from the Papal states ==> Italian capital moved to Rome  ==> creation of a separate Papal state (Vatican)

Italy was made by the long apostolate of Mazzini, by the boldness of Garibaldi, and the cold policy of Cavour ( by war and insurrection, by armed violence endorsed by popular vote)

"Italy is made now we have to make the Italians"
> regional differences between north and south
> new Italy was parliamentary but not democratic
 * the right to vote: 600,000 persons out of 20 million
> the revolutionary movement shifted from older republican nationalism to newer forms of Marxist socialism, and anarchism